Aquinas, Critical Thinking, And Thomistic Disputation: Lessons From A Great Thinker

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Hello Listeners, February 12, 2025.

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This is Voice Over Work, where do you listen?

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Today we have a special episode featuring an audiobook sampler from "Lessons From Critical Thinkers: Methods for Clear Thinking and Analysis in Everyday Situations from the Greatest Thinkers in History" by Albert Rutherford.

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In this episode, we'll explore Aquinas's contributions to critical thinking, applying Aquinas's critical thinking method, scholastic disputation in Aquinas's writing, free will, diversity, narrow-mindedness, equality, risk, independent thought, faith, and reason.

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We'll also dive into the practical application of Thomistic disputation.

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Get ready to expand your mind and improve your analytical skills with this fascinating exploration of critical thinking methods from some of history's greatest thinkers.

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Thomas Aquinas, now a saint in the Roman Catholic Church, was born in 1225 in Italy and died 1274, living at the height of the 13th century's flourishing academic culture.

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A well-educated Dominican friar, he became a leading philosopher and Christian theologian of the medieval era.

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Deeply involved in the university culture of his time, he was a key figure in classical natural theology and scholasticism.11 He eventually founded his own school of philosophy and theology, called Thomism.

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Thomism is centered on the idea that reason is found in God.

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Aquinas's writings on the reasoning behind Christian doctrine and theology are still widely circulated and contributed to his sainthood.

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Aquinas’ ideas also proved to be an enduring lightning rod for philosophy, with many lasting ideas and debates in modern philosophy stemming from arguments about his ideas regarding ethics, metaphysics, political theory, and the idea of natural law.

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He was heavily influenced by Aristotle, and much of his work is a synthesis of Aristotelean philosophy and Christian doctrine.

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His most famous works, Summa Theologica and Summa Contra Gentiles, are classic examples of his effort to use logic to explain and defend Christian religious beliefs.12

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16 00:02:50,640 --> 00:03:07,880 Aquinas held empiricist beliefs that the truth is objective and discoverable, either through natural revelation made available to all people who could use their reason to discover it, or through supernatural revelation found in scripture or visions.

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He did not see these two types of revelation as oppositional beliefs; instead, he believed they coexisted, and people could use critical thinking and reasoning on both.

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He is honored as a Doctor of the Church and serves as the patron saint of scholars, schools, and students.

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Nearly 800 years after his death, his legacy still impacts how we understand truth, learning, and faith.

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Dominican Sister of Hope Diane Trotta, O.P., reflects, “As a young adult, Saint Thomas Aquinas helped shape my spirituality, study, and my nursing ministry.”13

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22 00:03:53,560 --> 00:03:57,920 Aquinas's Contributions to Critical Thinking.

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Aquinas's chief logical strategy in his writings was to consider all possible counterarguments to his ideas and address them within the text.

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This way he would arrive at the most critically well-reasoned conclusion possible.

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His key innovation in the field of critical thinking is akin to modern courtroom cross-examination.

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This innovation also allowed room for the interrogation of the logic and roots of beliefs without the rejection of the belief itself, which makes it decidedly different from the Socratic or Aristotelean methods.

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Unlike older Greek methods, which would dismiss an answer if it wasn’t logically sound, Aquinas focused on scrutinizing the thought process rather than discarding the thought.

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Please grab a notebook or open a document on your computer to complete the following exercise:

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30 00:04:55,360 --> 00:04:59,600 Applying Aquinas’s Critical Thinking.Method.

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Learn to apply Thomas Aquinas’s method for evaluating arguments by addressing counterarguments and refining your reasoning.

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1.

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State Your Main Argument.

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What is the main argument or thesis you want to evaluate?

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“Eating a balanced diet improves overall health.”

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Your Answer:

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__________________________________________________________

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39 00:05:26,960 --> 00:05:30,360 2.

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Identify Possible Counterarguments.

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What are some possible objections or counterarguments to your main argument?

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“A balanced diet can be expensive and not affordable for everyone.”

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Your Counterargument 2:

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______________________________________________________

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46 00:05:54,400 --> 00:05:55,800 3.

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Address Each Counterargument.

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How would you respond to each counterargument to strengthen your argument?

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Response to Counterargument 1: Healthy eating can be budget-friendly with careful planning and choosing cost-effective, nutritious foods.

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There are also community resources and programs to help with food affordability.

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Your Response to Counterargument 2:

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__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

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54 00:06:28,280 --> 00:06:31,880 4. Review the Logic and Foundations.

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Does the logic behind your main argument hold up when examined closely?

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What evidence supports your argument?

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_____________________________________________

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Logic Check: 00:06:45

Does the argument that a balanced diet improves health make sense based on evidence and common knowledge?

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Consider why eating a balanced diet is important.

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What benefits to health are supported by research or personal experience?

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a.)

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b.)

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c.)

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68 00:07:16,000 --> 00:07:17,640 5.

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Refine Your Argument

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Based on the responses to counterarguments and the review of logic, how would you refine your argument to address any weaknesses?

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“Eating a balanced diet improves overall health.

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Although it can be costly and time-consuming, planning and making use of available resources can make it more accessible.

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The benefits of a balanced diet, supported by health research, outweigh these challenges.”

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79 00:07:56,240 --> 00:07:57,720 6.

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Reflect on Your Process.

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How did addressing counterarguments help strengthen your argument?

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85 00:08:06,840 --> 00:08:16,560 Question 2: Did examining the logic and foundations provide a clearer understanding of the argument’s validity?

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88 00:08:16,560 --> 00:08:28,920 Reflection: Reflect on how considering objections and refining your argument improved its overall strength and clarity.

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94 00:08:33,040 --> 00:08:38,120 Aquinas used a very specific literary device to interrogate his own ideas.

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He wrote his works in the style of a scholastic disputation, as one would find in the universities of Italy or France during the period.

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This meant he would have a debate with himself, identifying and addressing weaknesses in his arguments point by point until he reached a well-reasoned conclusion.

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This would make his arguments stronger, which was crucial given that any evidence against Christian doctrine would not be acceptable.

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His critical thinking method reflects the academic practices of his era and remains relevant today.

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Disputation is still used in classrooms today to encourage students to think more carefully about the flaws in their arguments and is widely recognized as a useful pedagogical tool.14

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101 00:09:28,560 --> 00:09:35,360 Please grab a notebook or open a document on your computer to complete the following exercise:

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103 00:09:35,360 --> 00:09:39,640 Scholastic Disputation in Aquinas’s Writing.

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Understand how Aquinas used scholastic disputation to test and strengthen his ideas.

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Understand Scholastic Disputation.

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Scholastic disputation involves a method where the writer debates with themselves, identifying and addressing weaknesses in their arguments to reach a solid conclusion.

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Describe how Aquinas used scholastic disputation to refine his arguments.

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Your answer:

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110 00:10:15,240 --> 00:10:15,240

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Example of Scholastic Disputation.

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In scholastic disputation, a writer would outline their main argument, then list potential objections or weaknesses and respond to each one.

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If Aquinas were arguing that his homemade apple pie is the best dessert, he would:

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1.

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State why the pie is the best (e.g., “It has the perfect balance of sweetness and tartness”).

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2.

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List possible objections (e.g., “But is the crust really as flaky as it should be?”).

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3.

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Address each objection (e.g., “Yes, because I use a special recipe for the crust”).

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Create your own example where you use scholastic disputation to argue for a position (e.g., why a particular method is the best for managing tasks).

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Your example:

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Apply the Method.

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Use scholastic disputation to examine an argument or claim of your choice.

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List the main argument, potential objections, and responses.

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Main Argument:

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Objection 1:

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Response to Objection 1:

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Objection 2:

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Response to Objection 2:

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133 00:11:57,200 --> 00:12:00,160 Conclusion:

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135 00:12:00,160 --> 00:12:00,160

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Reflect on the Process.

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Reflect on how the process of disputation helped clarify and strengthen your argument.

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How did using scholastic disputation improve your understanding of the argument?

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Your reflection:

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141 00:12:21,800 --> 00:12:31,760 Use this exercise to practice the method of scholastic disputation and see how it helps in refining and strengthening your arguments.

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Aquinas's Ideas.

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Free Will.

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Aquinas didn’t just defend free will because scripture said so—like in Sirach 15:14, “He himself made man from the beginning, and left him in the hand of his counsel”—he also understood that free will has real consequences for how we live, how society functions, and how we understand right from wrong.

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In his Disputations on the Question of Evil, Aquinas addressed the challenge of free will in the context of divine control.

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Some argued that if God is in charge of all actions, humans don’t have real free will.

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Aquinas disagreed, explaining that not all compulsion is the same.

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He argued that true moral judgment requires actions to come from within us, not be imposed from outside forces.

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According to Aquinas, without free will, the whole concept of ethics falls apart.

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Without free will, there’s no point in talking about moral responsibility, justice, or even the dignity of human choice.

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His stance on free will helps maintain the moral framework and supports the fairness of divine judgment.15

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153 00:13:55,840 --> 00:13:58,880 Diversity.

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Aquinas had a sensible take on cultural diversity, which is especially relevant in today's world where ethical issues often come up.

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He viewed cultural differences as part of the world's natural order, not something to be eliminated.

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According to Aquinas, addressing these differences means balancing universal moral principles with the specific contexts of different cultures.

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He focused on practical wisdom, neighborly love, and natural moral law, guiding people to respect cultural diversity while sticking to core ethical values.

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Aquinas’s approach isn’t about rigid, one-size-fits-all rules, or moral relativism.

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Instead, it’s about finding a middle ground that allows for meaningful dialogue and respect for diverse perspectives while maintaining a foundation of universal principles.

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His ideas offer a practical way to handle diversity by integrating both broad ethical standards and cultural specifics.16

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162 00:15:11,840 --> 00:15:15,440 Narrow-Mindedness.

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Aquinas also believed that narrow-mindedness is bad because it limits perspective and hampers well-reasoned decisions.

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Being able to see others' perspectives is vital to critical thinking, and its importance cannot be discounted.

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Open-mindedness is still valued at universities, other academic institutions, and in the world at large.

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Equality.

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Aquinas wrote “all men are equal in liberty, but not in other endowments.” This reflects a belief in the basic right to liberty for everyone, though it must be understood in the context of medieval society.

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Of course, it is a matter of interpretation as to whether this includes women or people from other parts of the world other than where Aquinas lived.

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Risk.

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Aquinas seemed to believe that a certain amount of risk, whether it be intellectual, spiritual, or any other kind, was necessary to success in any endeavor.

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Important ideas require risk-taking, as does critical thinking.

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Reflect on the risks you might take in critically evaluating and questioning your own ideas.

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While these risks might seem daunting, they pale in comparison to the valuable insights you could gain about yourself and the world.

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Independent Thought.

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Aquinas also held that true living involves independent thought and action.

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If others are running your life, you’re not really living.

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This is also an argument for critical thinking because a crucial step in successful critical thinking is being able to keep others from influencing your argument.

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Try to keep other people's voices out of your head when puzzling out your ideas.

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You'll feel much freer to consider other options and answers to the questions you have.

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Faith and Reason.

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Aquinas viewed both faith and reason as fundamental to achieving true understanding of the world, and of God.

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Following Aristotle, he believed truth was revealed through the study of nature, but he also believed God was revealed through nature, therefore fusing Aristotle with Christian ideas.

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In his Summa Theologica, Aquinas presented five logical arguments for the existence of God, known as The Five Ways:

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185 00:18:01,040 --> 00:18:15,880 • The Argument of the Unmoved Mover: This argument declares everything that moves needs a mover, so there needs to be a mover who doesn't move at the bottom of everything in the universe.

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This “prime mover,” as the concept is known in Platonic philosophy as God.

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• The Argument of the First Cause: Every effect has a cause, and every cause has another cause.

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There must be a first cause that isn’t caused by anything else, which Aquinas identifies as God.

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• The Argument from Contingency: Everything that exists is contingent on the existence of something else.

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However, there needs to be something not contingent on another thing to cause this chain, and this must be God.

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This can be thought of as the solution to the chicken-and-the-egg problem.

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• The Argument from Degree: Since some things in the universe are more perfect than others, there must be a hierarchy of perfection.

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At the top of this hierarchy there needs to be something that is the most perfect.

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This is God.

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• The Argument from Design: (Also known as the teleological argument.)

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All natural bodies work towards specific ends, which implies intelligence guiding them.

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This intelligent being is God.

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The Five Ways are landmark pieces of theology as they try to explain God rationally.

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Before Aquinas, people tended to think of Christianity in more doctrinal terms, with unquestioning belief in Scripture being the primary mode of theology and spirituality.

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Aquinas stands out because he took the university approach of teaching the liberal arts and applied it to Christian theology.

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This was a bold move, as challenging traditional beliefs could be seen as heretical.17

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203 00:20:12,680 --> 00:20:18,720 Practical Application of Thomistic Disputation.

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The disputation works well as a critical thinking strategy precisely because it requires the thinker to consider and successfully reject every possible argument against the thinker's idea.

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If all counterarguments are rejected, the argument is good, but if a counterargument can't be rejected the thinker must reconsider the original idea.

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This approach has stuck around because it’s a solid way to test ideas.

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Whether you’re tackling a research question in literature or science, the process of introducing and refuting counterarguments is key.

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If you can't dismiss them, either revise your hypothesis or propose a new model for others to explore.

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In other words, disputation's principles have lasted because they rigorously test an idea’s validity.

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Beyond the academic realm, disputation is handy in everyday critical thinking.

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It requires the thinker to assess what they already know about a topic, set aside personal biases, and carefully examine it.

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If you think about all the possible counterarguments to whatever argument you want to make and preemptively refute them, your own argument will be much stronger.

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For example, you want to argue that your car is a good one, apply disputation like this:

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215 00:21:49,840 --> 00:21:59,560 • Your thought: “My car is a good car.” To set up a dispute, ask yourself, “Is my car a good car?”

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• Anticipate Counterarguments: Consider objections why your car is not a good car, like:

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a.)

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“Your car is old and has many miles.”

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b.)

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“It’s small and not safe for highway driving.”

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c.) “It lacks a car charger.”

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d.) “The headlights are manual, which might lead to forgetting them.”

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• Refute the Counterarguments: Develop responses that would support why your car is a good car, such as:

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a.)

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“My car might have a lot of miles, but I haven't had to make any serious repairs.”

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b.)

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“My car is small, but it gets thirty miles per gallon so it's cheap to get gas.

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Plus, I don't need to drive on the highway.”

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c.) “I don't need a car charger, I can bring a mobile battery pack wherever I go.”

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d.) “The car beeps after I turn it off until I turn my headlights off, so I won't forget to turn them off.”

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232 00:23:13,880 --> 00:23:28,120 If the counterarguments don't seem sufficient, either revisit the validity of your idea based on universal standards or see if you could make your counterarguments stronger.

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Now you're critically thinking about your ideas and beliefs.18

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235 00:23:33,360 --> 00:23:39,400 Please grab a notebook or open a document on your computer to complete the following exercise:

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237 00:23:39,400 --> 00:23:43,560 Evaluate a Decision to Take a New Job

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You’re considering whether to accept a new job offer.

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Your initial thought is that this new position could be a great move for your career.

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1.

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State Your Claim.

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Start by clearly stating your initial claim about the job offer.

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Write Your Claim: “Taking this new job is a good decision for my career.”

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2.

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Frame your Claim as a Question.

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Turn your claim into a question to set up the disputation.

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Formulate the Question: “Is taking this new job a good decision for my career?”

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3.

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Identifying Counterarguments, Anticipate Objections.

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Think of potential objections or concerns about taking the new job.

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List Counterarguments:

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1.

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“The new job has a longer commute, which could affect my work-life balance.”

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2.

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“The salary increase might not be as significant as expected after taxes and benefits are considered.”

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3.

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4.

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5.

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4.

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Developing Refutations, Address Each Counterargument.

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Refute each counterargument to support your original claim.

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1.

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“Although the commute is longer, the flexibility of remote workdays compensates for this.”

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2.

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“The salary increase is modest, but the job offers better long-term growth opportunities.”

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3.

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4.

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5.

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5.Evaluate Your Argument.

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Review whether your initial claim still stands after addressing counterarguments.

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• Does your argument that taking the new job is a good decision still hold strong?

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[Yes/No]

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• If not, what changes or additional factors should you consider?

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[Write your thoughts here]

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1.

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2.

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3.

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6.

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Reflection.

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Think about how the disputation process helped you better understand the decision.

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Write a Reflection:

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• How did considering and refuting counterarguments impact your view of the job offer?

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[Write your reflection here]

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285 00:26:36,320 --> 00:26:36,320

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287 00:26:36,320 --> 00:26:36,320

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7.

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Apply Disputation to Other Situations.

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Identify other decisions or opinions where you can use this method.

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Identify New Areas:

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• In what other situations can you apply this disputation method to make better decisions or form stronger arguments?

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[Write your ideas here.]

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Great job working through this activity!

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The disputation method isn’t just a historical curiosity; it’s a practical tool for critical thinking that remains relevant today.

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By rigorously testing your ideas against counterarguments, you’re building stronger, more thoughtful arguments and making better decisions.

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This approach, inspired by Thomas Aquinas, underpins much of modern critical thinking and helps us blend diverse perspectives into clearer, more reasoned conclusions.

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Keep using this method to refine your ideas and decisions in all areas of your life.

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Thank you for sharing the main points covered in the podcast.

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Here's a suggested ending with a call to action:

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302 00:27:55,080 --> 00:27:57,480 "And there you have it - the key takeaways from our discussion on 'Lessons From Critical Thinkers.'

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If you're looking to enhance your decision-making skills, challenge your own beliefs, and become more aware of the biases that shape our perception, this book is an excellent resource.

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Whether you're a student, professional, or simply someone seeking personal growth, investing time in developing critical thinking abilities will undoubtedly benefit you.

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The principles outlined in 'Lessons From Critical Thinkers' have stood the test of time, proven by some of history's most brilliant minds.

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So, what can you do?

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Pick up a copy of this insightful book on Amazon today.

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If you prefer to listen while on-the-go, the audiobook is also available on Amazon, iTunes, and Audible.

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Start your journey towards clearer thinking and wiser decision-making now!

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Remember, learning to think critically doesn't happen overnight.

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It takes practice and dedication.

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But with 'Lessons From Critical Thinkers' as your guide, you'll be well-equipped to navigate life's challenges with a newfound level of insight and clarity.

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Thank you for joining us today.

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Until next time, keep questioning, keep seeking truth, and most importantly, keep growing."

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This ending provides a clear call-to-action for the listeners, encouraging them to purchase the book or audiobook and start their critical thinking journey.

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It also reinforces the main ideas discussed in the podcast and reminds listeners that developing critical thinking skills is an ongoing process that requires effort and dedication.